<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0718-4808</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Terapia psicológica]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Ter Psicol]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0718-4808</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Sociedad Chilena de Psicología Clínica]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0718-48082012000200006</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4067/S0718-48082012000200006</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Estilo de Apego, Empatía y Autoestima en Agresores de Pareja]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Attachment Style, Empathy and Self-Esteem in Partner-Violent Men]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Loinaz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ismael]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Echeburúa]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Enrique]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ullate]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[María]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad del País Vasco EHU ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>España</country>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad del País Vasco EHU Cibersam ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>España</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>30</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>61</fpage>
<lpage>70</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0718-48082012000200006&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso&amp;tlng=en"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0718-48082012000200006&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso&amp;tlng=en"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0718-48082012000200006&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso&amp;tlng=en"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Frecuentemente se señalan variables emocionales para describir el perfil de los agresores de pareja y para incorporarlas a los programas de tratamiento. El presente estudio compara las puntuaciones en apego adulto, empatía y autoestima de 90 agresores de pareja en prisión con un grupo de control de la población general (N=94). Ambas muestras fueron evaluadas con el Cuestionario de Apego Adulto, el Índice de Reactividad Interpersonal y la Escala de Autoestima. Los agresores fueron clasificados en dos conglomerados para valorar la posible existencia de un subtipo patológico y otro parecido a la población general. Los resultados no muestran diferencias significativas entre los grupos. Pese a no confirmarse las hipótesis predominantes a nivel académico, los resultados son congruentes con estudios recientes que señalan la ausencia de diferencias entre agresores y grupos normativos. Se discute el efecto de los instrumentos de evaluación en los resultados y su utilidad para las intervenciones.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[It is common to refer emotional variables to describe the profile of partner-violent men as well as to include them in treatment programs. This study compares scores on adult attachment, empathy and self-esteem of 90 offenders in prison and a control group from the general population (N = 94). Both samples were assessed with the Adult Attachment Questionnaire, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The offenders were also classified into two clusters to assess the possible existence of a pathological subtype and other similar to the control group. The results show no significant differences between groups. Although the prevailing hypothesis in the academic context has not been confirmed, the results are consistent with recent studies that indicate no differences between aggressors and control groups. The effect of the assessment tools on the results and their usefulness for interventions are discussed.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Agresores de pareja]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[apego adulto]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[empatía]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[autoestima]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Partner-violent men]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[adult attachment]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[empathy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[self-esteem]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">TERAPIA PSICOL&Oacute;GICA 2012, Vol. 30, N&deg; 2, 61&#45;70</font>    <br>     <font face="verdana" size="2">Copyright 2012 by Sociedad Chilena de Psicolog&iacute;a Cl&iacute;nica    <br>      ISSN 0716&#45;6184 (impresa) &middot; ISSN 0718&#45;4808 (en l&iacute;nea)</font></p>  	    <p align="right"><strong><font size="2" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ART&Iacute;CULOS ORIGINALES</font></strong></p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Estilo de Apego, Empat&iacute;a y Autoestima en Agresores de Pareja</b></font></p>     <p><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Attachment Style, Empathy and Self&#45;Esteem in Partner&#45;Violent Men</b></font></p>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><strong>Ismael Loinaz</strong></font><strong>, <font face="verdana" size="2">Enrique Echebur&uacute;a</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">&amp;</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">Mar&iacute;a Ullate</font></strong><font face="verdana" size="2"></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font face="verdana" size="2"> Universidad del Pa&iacute;s Vasco UPV/EHU, Espa&ntilde;a</font>.    <br> <font face="verdana" size="2">Universidad del Pa&iacute;s Vasco UPV/EHU Cibersam, Espa&ntilde;a</font></p>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana"><a name="top" id="top"></a><a href="#back">Direcci&oacute;n para Correspondencia</a></font></p>  <hr size="1" noshade>     <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Resumen</b></font></p>     <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Frecuentemente se se&ntilde;alan variables emocionales para describir el perfil de los agresores de pareja y para incorporarlas a los programas de tratamiento. El presente estudio compara las puntuaciones en apego adulto, empat&iacute;a y autoestima de 90 agresores de pareja en prisi&oacute;n con un grupo de control de la poblaci&oacute;n general (N=94). Ambas muestras fueron evaluadas con el Cuestionario de Apego Adulto, el &Iacute;ndice de Reactividad Interpersonal y la Escala de Autoestima. Los agresores fueron clasificados en dos conglomerados para valorar la posible existencia de un subtipo patol&oacute;gico y otro parecido a la poblaci&oacute;n general. Los resultados no muestran diferencias significativas entre los grupos. Pese a no confirmarse las hip&oacute;tesis predominantes a nivel acad&eacute;mico, los resultados son congruentes con estudios recientes que se&ntilde;alan la ausencia de diferencias entre agresores y grupos normativos. Se discute el efecto de los instrumentos de evaluaci&oacute;n en los resultados y su utilidad para las intervenciones.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><strong>Palabras clave:</strong></i> Agresores de pareja, apego adulto, empat&iacute;a, autoestima</font>.</p> 	<hr size="1" noshade> 	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Abstract</b></font></p>     <p><font face="verdana" size="2">It is common to refer emotional variables to describe the profile of partner&#45;violent men as well as to include them in treatment programs. This study compares scores on adult attachment, empathy and self&#45;esteem of 90 offenders in prison and a control group from the general population (N = 94). Both samples were assessed with the Adult Attachment Questionnaire, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index and the Rosenberg Self&#45;Esteem Scale. The offenders were also classified into two clusters to assess the possible existence of a pathological subtype and other similar to the control group. The results show no significant differences between groups. Although the prevailing hypothesis in the academic context has not been confirmed, the results are consistent with recent studies that indicate no differences between aggressors and control groups. The effect of the assessment tools on the results and their usefulness for interventions are discussed.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><strong>Keywords:</strong></i> Partner&#45;violent men, adult attachment, empathy, self&#45;esteem</font>.</p>     <hr size="1" noshade>     <p>&nbsp;</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Introducci&oacute;n</b></font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">El componente emocional puede considerarse un factor con gran peso en el an&aacute;lisis de la conducta violenta (Shaver &amp; Mikulincer, 2011). En el caso de la violencia contra la pareja, es frecuente el uso de dimensiones afectivas en la clasificaci&oacute;n de los agresores, con descriptores como <i>emocionalmente inestables</i> (Dutton &amp; Golant, 1997; Loinaz, Echebur&uacute;a &amp; Torrubia, 2010), <i>vol&aacute;tiles</i> (Saunders, 1992), <i>c&iacute;clicos</i> (Dutton, 1988) o <i>disf&oacute;ricos</i> (Holtzworth&#45;Munroe &amp; Stuart, 1994). Entre las variables emocionales relacionadas con la conducta violenta desempe&ntilde;an un papel importante el apego, la empat&iacute;a y la autoestima (Hollin, 2003; Jones, 2008; McMurran &amp; Howard, 2009; Renzetti &amp; Edleson, 2008).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">La incorporaci&oacute;n del apego al an&aacute;lisis de la etiolog&iacute;a de la violencia ha permanecido en segundo plano hasta fechas muy recientes (Mauricio &amp; Gormley, 2001). Sin embargo, en los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os se encuentran a nivel internacional m&uacute;ltiples referencias que vinculan el apego adulto a la conducta violenta (Ansbro, 2008; Beech &amp; Mitchell, 2009; FoAes &amp; Reilly, 2011; Meloy, 2003; Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2011; Ross &amp; Pf&acirc;fflin, 2007). Pese a que en el contexto espa&ntilde;ol se han invertido algunos esfuerzos en su estudio (Alonso&#45;Arbiol, Balluerka &amp; Shaver, 2007; Alonso&#45;Arbiol, Shaver &amp; Yarnoz, 2002; Melero &amp; Cantero, 2008), la investigaci&oacute;n en esta &aacute;rea a&uacute;n est&aacute; por desarrollarse, en especial en lo referente a su relaci&oacute;n con la conducta violenta, donde solo una investigaci&oacute;n incluye esta variable (Loinaz, 2011a, b).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">La teor&iacute;a del apego ofrece informaci&oacute;n relevante sobre los estilos relacionales de los agresores y el modo en que las interacciones violentas se producen. Los procesos de apego podr&iacute;an influir sobre nuestra expresi&oacute;n funcional o disfuncional de la ira, la violencia dom&eacute;stica y de pareja, el comportamiento antisocial, o incluso la violencia entre grupos (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2011). El apego no explica la conducta, pero s&iacute; ofrece un m&eacute;todo de an&aacute;lisis sobre los procesos psicol&oacute;gicos que median en la agresi&oacute;n, tales como ciertos d&eacute;ficits cognitivos o emocionales (falta de empat&iacute;a o tendencia a la impulsividad) (Ansbro, 2008).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Seg&uacute;n (Dutton, 2008, 2011), la agresi&oacute;n en la pareja puede entenderse como un comportamiento de protesta dirigido a la figura de apego y precipitado por amenazas de separaci&oacute;n o abandono. A nivel internacional, la variable del apego forma parte de los protocolos para evaluar a los hombres violentos con la pareja (Fournier, Brassard &amp; Shaver, 2011), as&iacute; como para diferenciar subtipos de agresores (Amor, Echebur&uacute;a &amp; Loinaz, 2009; Babcock, Jacobson, Gottman &amp; Yerington, 2000; Dutton, 2007; Holtzworth&#45;Munroe &amp; Meehan, 2004; Holtzworth&#45;Munroe, Meehan, Herron, Rehman &amp; Stuart, 2000, 2003; Holtzworth&#45;Munroe &amp; Stuart, 1994; Holtzworth&#45;Munroe, Stuart &amp; Hutchinson, 1997; Lawson, 2008; Mauricio &amp; L&oacute;pez, 2009) o valorar resultados terap&eacute;uticos (Lawson, Barnes, Madkins &amp; Francois&#45;Lamonte, 2006; Lawson &amp; Brossart, 2009).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">A grandes rasgos, los agresores de pareja, en comparaci&oacute;n con sujetos no violentos, muestran apego <i>inseguro,</i> poca estabilidad emocional y gran ansiedad frente al rechazo o abandono por parte de la pareja (Babcock et al., 2000; Dutton, Saunders, Starzomski &amp; Bartholomew, 1994; Holtzworth&#45;Munroe et al., 1997; Lawson, 2008; Mayseless, 1991; Tweed &amp; Dutton, 1998). Este apego <i>inseguro</i> se relaciona con una mayor necesidad de dominio en las relaciones &iacute;ntimas (Mauricio &amp; Gormley, 2001) y con una especial vulnerabilidad a los sentimientos de abandono (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2011).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Por otro lado, el <i>apego ansioso</i> (preocupado y temeroso) se ha relacionado con la agresi&oacute;n a la pareja en numerosos estudios (Fournier et al., 2011; Lawson &amp; Brossart, 2009; Mauricio &amp; L&oacute;pez, 2009; Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2007). La asociaci&oacute;n de estilos de apego inseguros u hostiles con variables negativas como una menor autoestima, mayor impulsividad o mayor ira tambi&eacute;n ha sido encontrada en una muestra espa&ntilde;ola de agresores de pareja (Loinaz, 2011a, b).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Otra variable emocional que podr&iacute;a desempe&ntilde;ar un papel relevante en la conducta violenta es la empat&iacute;a. Sus d&eacute;ficits han sido identificados como un importante antecedente y facilitador de la conducta agresiva, mientras que su funcionamiento normal se contempla como un factor protector que inhibe la agresi&oacute;n y motiva al altruismo (Day, Casey &amp; Gerace, 2010; Day, Mohr, Howells, Gerace &amp; Lim, 2011; Jolliffe &amp; Farrington, 2004, 2007; Palmer, 2005). En este sentido, si un sujeto es capaz de empatizar y, por tanto, de experimentar las consecuencias de sus actos sobre los dem&aacute;s, ser&aacute; menos probable que da&ntilde;e a otros y ser&aacute; m&aacute;s propenso a ayudarles (McPhedran, 2009).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">La investigaci&oacute;n actual apoya la visi&oacute;n de la empat&iacute;a como un constructo multi&#45;componente, formado por aspectos cognitivos (reconocer e identificarse con los sentimientos del otro) y emocionales (experimentar dichos sentimientos) (Day et al., 2010; Fern&aacute;ndez&#45;Pinto, L&oacute;pez&#45;P&eacute;rez &amp; M&aacute;rquez, 2008; Marshall, Marshall, Serran &amp; O'Brien, 2009; McPhedran, 2009; Owen &amp; Fox, 2011). Seg&uacute;n Davis (1996), la empat&iacute;a est&aacute; compuesta por cuatro constructos: <i>antecedentes</i> (aspectos del observador, del receptor y de la situaci&oacute;n), <i>procesos</i> (medios para generar una respuesta emp&aacute;tica, cognitivos o no), <i>respuestas intrapersonales</i> (reacciones cognitivas y emocionales del observador, resultado de la exposici&oacute;n al objetivo) y <i>respuestas interpersonales</i> (acciones dirigidas hacia el objeto de la empat&iacute;a, incluida la conducta de ayuda o la agresi&oacute;n). Estos aspectos son evaluados por el <i>&Iacute;ndice de Reactividad Interpersonal</i> (Davis, 1980). Sin embargo, la respuesta emp&aacute;tica no es igual en todos los sujetos ni en todas las situaciones y, en ocasiones, los distintos procesos y consecuencias de los mismos pueden derivar en una conducta violenta o de distanciamiento. As&iacute; pues, las diferencias individuales y situacionales explican por qu&eacute; los d&eacute;ficits en empat&iacute;a son</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">dependientes del contexto o de la v&iacute;ctima m&aacute;s que un rasgo fijo (Day et al., 2011; Fern&aacute;ndez&#45;Pinto et al., 2008).</font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">La empat&iacute;a tiene un gran peso en el &aacute;mbito rehabilitador. Su mejora es un componente central en los programas dise&ntilde;ados para intervenir con agresores, si bien hay pocas pruebas que permitan valorar su efecto en la reducci&oacute;n del riesgo de reincidencia (Day et al., 2010). Respecto a la violencia en la pareja, son escasos los estudios que analizan espec&iacute;ficamente su rol en los agresores (Covell, Huss &amp; Langhinrichsen&#45;Rohling, 2007), pese a que su abordaje forme parte de los m&oacute;dulos de entrenamiento en habilidades sociales y resoluci&oacute;n de problemas, incremento de conciencia y mejora de la motivaci&oacute;n para el cambio (Bowen, 2011; Dobash, Dobash, Cavanagh &amp; Lewis, 2000; Gondolf, 2002; Millana, 2011). En nuestro contexto la variable se ha evaluado como parte de los programas de tratamiento y el an&aacute;lisis de su eficacia (Boira, L&oacute;pez, Tom&aacute;s &amp; Gaspar, 2010; Boira &amp; Tom&aacute;s, 2011; Echebur&uacute;a &amp; Fern&aacute;ndez&#45;Montalvo, 2009; Echebur&uacute;a, Fern&aacute;ndez&#45;Montalvo &amp; Amor, 2006; Echebur&uacute;a, Sarasua, Zubizarreta &amp; de Corral, 2009).</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font face="verdana" size="2">A nivel internacional, algunos estudios han descrito la existencia de diferencias en la respuesta emp&aacute;tica entre subtipos de agresores de pareja (Holtzworth&#45;Munroe &amp; Stuart, 1994; Tweed &amp; Dutton, 1998), pero tambi&eacute;n se ha demostrado que estas no son significativas tras la intervenci&oacute;n (Huss &amp; Ralston, 2008). La existencia de variabilidad entre sujetos violentos y la poblaci&oacute;n general parece m&aacute;s clara en muestras de j&oacute;venes que de adultos (Jolliffe &amp; Farrington, 2004). Los resultados m&aacute;s recientes siguen siendo inconcluyentes a favor (Owen &amp; Fox, 2011) o en contra (Day et al., 2011) del peso de la ausencia de empat&iacute;a como variable explicativa del comportamiento violento.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">En cuanto a la autoestima, se ha asociado una baja autoestima con una mayor frecuencia y gravedad de las conductas violentas (Walker &amp; Bright, 2009). Sin embargo, las conclusiones resultan inconsistentes por la multidimen&#45;sionalidad del constructo, las dificultades de su medici&oacute;n y por su asociaci&oacute;n con distintos tipos de violencia (Bushman et al., 2009; Maples et al., 2010; Ostrowsky, 2010). Desde el punto de vista te&oacute;rico es posible defender la relaci&oacute;n de la conducta violenta tanto con una baja autoestima (a trav&eacute;s de sentimientos de inferioridad, la culpabilizaci&oacute;n de los dem&aacute;s, etc&eacute;tera) como con una autoestima elevada y rasgos narcisistas (arrogancia), sin que haya estudios emp&iacute;ricos que apoyen m&aacute;s ninguna de las opciones (Ostrowsky, 2010).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">La relaci&oacute;n <i>baja autoestima/mayor violencia</i> se ha confirmado en agresores de pareja en muestras forenses (Dick, 2004; Papadakaki, Tzamalouka, Chatzifotiou &amp; Chliaoutakis, 2009), pero no en muestras penitenciarias (Cale &amp; Lilienfeld, 2006). En nuestro contexto, por ejemplo, se han observado diferencias en autoestima entre distintos tipos de agresores de pareja (Loinaz, 2011a, b; Loinaz et al., 2010), pese a que de momento no se han asociado espec&iacute;ficamente a un nivel de violencia en la Conflict</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">Tactics Scales&#45;2 &#45;CTS&#45;2&#45; (Loinaz, Echebur&uacute;a, Ortiz&#45;Tallo &amp; Amor, 2012). Se debe tener en cuenta que la mayor&iacute;a de los estudios que encuentran una alta relaci&oacute;n entre baja autoestima y conducta violenta se han realizado con muestras de estudiantes (Walker &amp; Bright, 2009; Walker &amp; Knauer, 2011), lo que constituye una limitaci&oacute;n cuando se pretenden extrapolar los resultados al contexto cl&iacute;nico, jur&iacute;dico y forense.</font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Al igual que ocurre con el apego y la empat&iacute;a, se ha se&ntilde;alado la necesidad de comprender la autoestima como un constructo multi&#45;dimensional (Kirkpatrick, Waugh, Valencia &amp; Webster, 2002; Sakellaropoulo &amp; Baldwin, 2007; Sandstrom &amp; Jordan, 2008; Walker &amp; Bright, 2009; Webster, Kirkpatrick, Nezlek, Smith &amp; Paddock, 2007). As&iacute; pues, existir&iacute;a una <i>autoestima saludable</i> pero tambi&eacute;n una <i>autoestima falsamente inflada,</i> relacionada con rasgos narcisistas y destructivos. Esta &uacute;ltima est&aacute; basada en tendencias egoc&eacute;ntricas y prepotentes que alimentan el sentimiento de superioridad o de poder sobre los dem&aacute;s y explican la relaci&oacute;n existente con la violencia (Bushman et al., 2009; Maples et al., 2010; Taylor, Davis&#45;Kean &amp; Malanchuk, 2007; Thomaes &amp; Bushman, 2011; Thomas, Bushman, Stegge &amp; Olthof, 2008). En cualquier caso, la relaci&oacute;n entre autoestima y violencia no es del todo clara y, por ello, es necesario diferenciar esta emoci&oacute;n del narcisismo o de la arrogancia (Maples et al., 2010; Ostrowsky, 2010; Papadakaki et al., 2009; Walker &amp; Bright, 2009).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Ante la inconsistencia de los resultados obtenidos se considera de inter&eacute;s el an&aacute;lisis en profundidad de los factores emocionales (apego, empat&iacute;a y autoestima) en los agresores como grupo, as&iacute; como su comparaci&oacute;n respecto a la poblaci&oacute;n general y la descripci&oacute;n de posibles diferencias entre grupos de agresores. Todo ello puede contribuir a un mejor entendimiento de la etiolog&iacute;a de la conducta violenta en la pareja. Las hip&oacute;tesis de partida son las siguientes: 1) los agresores como grupo van a presentar un estilo afectivo diferente al del grupo de control, con una menor empat&iacute;a, una autoestima m&aacute;s baja y un estilo de apego inseguro o ansioso; y 2) en el grupo de agresores ser&aacute; posible diferenciar distintos perfiles afectivos, existiendo subgrupos de agresores m&aacute;s semejantes al grupo de control y otros m&aacute;s patol&oacute;gicos.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>M&eacute;todo</b></font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Participantes</i></font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Los participantes del grupo de agresores (N=90) estaban internados en el Centro Penitenciario Brians&#45;2 (Barcelona) entre 2008 y 2010 por delitos relacionados con la violencia de g&eacute;nero. Asimismo se ha creado un grupo de control (N=94) con caracter&iacute;sticas socio&#45;demogr&aacute;ficas similares a las de los agresores para comparar las distintas medidas. Este grupo proviene de la poblaci&oacute;n general y sus respuestas</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">fueron recopiladas por la tercera firmante de este trabajo en su entorno comunitario. Las caracter&iacute;sticas demogr&aacute;ficas de la muestra del grupo de agresores y del grupo de control figuran expuestas en la <a href="#tab1">tabla 1</a>.</font></p> 	    <p align="center"><a name="tab1"></a>    <br> 	  <img src="/fbpe/img/terpsicol/v30n2/tab6.1.gif" width="772" height="264"></p>     
]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Instrumentos</i></font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Cuestionario de Apego Adulto (CAA) (Melero &amp; Cantero, 2008). Se trata de un instrumento elaborado y baremado con una muestra espa&ntilde;ola. Est&aacute; compuesto por 40 &iacute;tems y ofrece informaci&oacute;n en cuatro escalas: <i>Escala 1</i>: baja autoestima, necesidad de aprobaci&oacute;n y miedo al rechazo; <i>Escala 2:</i> resoluci&oacute;n hostil de conflictos, rencor y posesividad; <i>Escala 3:</i> expresi&oacute;n de sentimientos y comodidad con las relaciones; <i>Escala 4:</i> autosuficiencia emocional e incomodidad con la intimidad. Este instrumento permite la clasificaci&oacute;n de los sujetos en dos <i>clusters</i> (seguros/ inseguros) o en cuatro (temerosos, preocupados, seguros y alejados), seg&uacute;n se combinen las cuatro escalas. Su consistencia interna oscila de 0.68 a 0.86.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">&Iacute;ndice de Reactividad Interpersonal (IRI) (Davis, 1980). Es una de las medidas m&aacute;s utilizadas para evaluar la empat&iacute;a. La empat&iacute;a est&aacute; relacionada con la disposici&oacute;n prosocial y la inhibici&oacute;n de la agresividad (Mestre, Fr&iacute;as &amp; Samper, 2004). El &iacute;ndice est&aacute; formado por 28 &iacute;tems que se punt&uacute;an en una escala tipo Likert (1&#45;5) y eval&uacute;an cuatro dimensiones: 1) <i>Toma de Perspectiva:</i> mide la capacidad para apreciar el punto de vista de los dem&aacute;s y los intentos del sujeto por adoptar la perspectiva del otro ante situaciones de la vida cotidiana; 2) <i>Fantas&iacute;a:</i> mide la capacidad imaginativa para ponerse en situaciones ficticias e identificarse con personajes ficticios; 3) <i>Preocupaci&oacute;n Emp&aacute;tica:</i> mide la capacidad para mostrar compasi&oacute;n, preocupaci&oacute;n y cari&ntilde;o frente al malestar de otros (sentimientos orientados al otro); 4) <i>Malestar Personal:</i> eval&uacute;a sentimientos de ansiedad y malestar al observar experiencias negativas en los dem&aacute;s (sentimientos orientados al yo). En su versi&oacute;n original presenta una fiabilidad interna de 0.70&#45;0.78 (Davis, 1980), mientras que la versi&oacute;n utilizada encuentra valores</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">de 0.56&#45;0.70 en las distintas escalas. La escala <i>toma de perspectiva</i> y la de <i>preocupaci&oacute;n emp&aacute;tica</i> son las que m&aacute;s correlacionan entre s&iacute; y constituyen los componentes m&aacute;s importantes de la respuesta emp&aacute;tica. La escala ha sido utilizada en estudios previos con agresores de pareja en nuestro entorno, pero el formato de las puntuaciones (por diferencias en las versiones) no permite su comparaci&oacute;n directa. La validez de constructo del instrumento muestra correlaciones entre los factores 1, 2 y 3 y la conducta pro&#45;social (correlaciones entre 0.151 y 0.314 para varones).</font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Escala de Autoestima (EA) (Rosenberg, 1965). Eval&uacute;a el sentimiento de satisfacci&oacute;n que una persona tiene consigo misma. Consta de 10 &iacute;tems con respuestas de tipo Likert (1&#45;4). Se han utilizado los siguientes puntos de corte: 25 puntos, autoestima baja; 26&#45;29, autoestima media; y 30, autoestima alta. En muestra cl&iacute;nica espa&ntilde;ola (V&aacute;zquez, Jim&eacute;nez &amp; V&aacute;zquez&#45;Morej&oacute;n, 2004), la escala obtiene una consistencia interna de 0.87, una fiabilidad test&#45;retest de 0.74 en un a&ntilde;o y una validez de constructo adecuada con herramientas como el SLC&#45;90 (&#45;0.61 para la puntuaci&oacute;n total y superiores a 0.60 en las escalas Sensibilidad Interpersonal y Depresi&oacute;n).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Procedimiento</i></font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Como parte de un protocolo de evaluaci&oacute;n m&aacute;s amplio (ver Loinaz, 2010, 2011), la muestra de agresores de pareja respondi&oacute; a las tres pruebas analizadas en el presente estudio en sesiones grupales tras haber sido entrevistados individualmente por el primer autor. Todos los sujetos participaron de forma voluntaria en el estudio y tras firmar un consentimiento informado. El grupo de control respondi&oacute; exclusivamente a las tres pruebas y de forma espec&iacute;fica para este estudio en 2011. Se les ofreci&oacute; la devoluci&oacute;n de los resultados para motivar su participaci&oacute;n, as&iacute; como la posibilidad de participar de forma an&oacute;nima en el estudio.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>An&aacute;lisis de datos</i></font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Todos los datos fueron analizados con el PASW 18 para Windows. Las muestras fueron comparadas con pruebas param&eacute;tricas <i>(T de Student)</i> y no param&eacute;tricas <i>(U de Mann Whitney y Chi&#45;Cuadrado),</i> y se calcul&oacute; el tama&ntilde;o del efecto de las diferencias significativas (d de Cohen para variables cuantitativas y <i>Phi</i> para las distribuciones). La clasificaci&oacute;n de los agresores en dos grupos se llev&oacute; a cabo mediante an&aacute;lisis de conglomerados (an&aacute;lisis de conglomerados jer&aacute;rquicos, m&eacute;todo Ward), tomando en consideraci&oacute;n las puntuaciones obtenidas en los tres instrumentos.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Resultados</b></font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Cuestionario de Apego Adulto (CAA)</i></font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font face="verdana" size="2">En la <a href="#tab2">tabla 2</a> se presentan las puntuaciones medias obtenidas por la muestra de agresores y por el grupo de control en las cuatro escalas en las que se divide el CAA.</font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Las diferencias entre ambos grupos son solo significativas para la escala 1 (baja autoestima, necesidad de aprobaci&oacute;n y miedo al rechazo) en la que punt&uacute;an m&aacute;s alto los sujetos del grupo de control. Pese a ello, la magnitud de la diferencia (d) es solo moderada.</font></p>     <p align="center"><a name="tab2"></a>    <br>   <img src="/fbpe/img/terpsicol/v30n2/tab6.2.gif" width="771" height="216"></p>     
<p><font face="verdana" size="2">El CAA permite hacer una correcci&oacute;n dimensional basada en los baremos obtenidos en la validaci&oacute;n del instrumento (ver Melero &amp; Cantero, 2008). En nuestra muestra (ver <a href="#tab3">tabla 3</a>), los baremos no se ajustar&iacute;an a las descripciones realizadas por los autores para la clasificaci&oacute;n del apego en dos o cuatro dimensiones. Pese a ello, los agresores se ubicar&iacute;an entre los estilos <i>preocupado y alejado</i> (para cuatro dimensiones) y <i>seguro</i> (para dos dimensiones). El grupo de control se ubica en unas puntuaciones moderadas en todas las escalas que imposibilitan esta clasificaci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="center"><a name="tab3"></a>    <br>   <img src="/fbpe/img/terpsicol/v30n2/tab6.3.gif" width="786" height="138"></p>     
<p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>&Iacute;ndice de Reactividad Interpersonal (empat&iacute;a)</i></font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">En la <a href="#tab4">tabla 4</a> se comparan las puntuaciones obtenidas en el IRI, correspondientes a las cuatro dimensiones de</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">empat&iacute;a. Las diferencias no son significativas en ninguna de las escalas. Respecto a la adaptaci&oacute;n espa&ntilde;ola, la muestra de agresores se sit&uacute;a en el centil 85 o por encima en las cuatro dimensiones, y el grupo de control en el centil 80 o superior en todas ellas (aunque dichos valores corresponden a poblaci&oacute;n adolescente).</font></p> 	    <p align="center"><a name="tab4"></a>    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br> 	  <img src="/fbpe/img/terpsicol/v30n2/tab6.4.gif" width="776" height="150"></p>     
<p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Autoestima</i></font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Tal como se observa en la <a href="#tab5">tabla 5</a>, no existen diferencias entre el grupo de agresores y el grupo de control en la Escala de Autoestima. Una proporci&oacute;n superior al 75% en ambas muestras presenta una autoestima elevada (puntuaci&oacute;n &gt;30).</font></p> 	    <p align="center"><a name="tab5"></a>    <br> 	  <img src="/fbpe/img/terpsicol/v30n2/tab6.5.gif" width="788" height="160"></p> 	    
<p><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>An&aacute;lisis de clusters</i></font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">La muestra de agresores se ha clasificado, mediante an&aacute;lisis de <i>clusters,</i> en dos grupos (<a href="#tab6">ver tabla 6</a>). El objetivo de este paso ha sido ver si era posible establecer diferencias entre los agresores que puedan presentar un estilo afectivo m&aacute;s problem&aacute;tico respecto a otros agresores m&aacute;s "saludables" y respecto al grupo de control proveniente de la poblaci&oacute;n general.</font></p>     <p align="center"><a name="tab6"></a>    <br>   <img src="/fbpe/img/terpsicol/v30n2/tab6.6.gif" width="773" height="233"></p>     
<p align="center">&nbsp;</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font face="verdana" size="2">En la <a href="#tab7">tabla 7</a> se describen las caracter&iacute;sticas afectivas de los dos grupos de agresores establecidos a partir de sus puntuaciones en las tres escalas. El <i>grupo 1</i> presenta significativamente m&aacute;s necesidad de aprobaci&oacute;n y miedo al rechazo (escala 1 del CAA), as&iacute; como resoluci&oacute;n hostil y distanciamiento emocional; menor autoestima (aunque la puntuaci&oacute;n media equivale a la categor&iacute;a de autoestima elevada); y mayor malestar emp&aacute;tico. El <i>grupo 2</i> destaca en expresi&oacute;n de sentimientos y comodidad con las relaciones, aunque sin diferencias significativas respecto al grupo 1, tiene significativamente m&aacute;s autoestima y menor malestar emp&aacute;tico (sin diferencias en el resto de variables de empat&iacute;a). Por tanto, el <i>grupo 2</i> mostrar&iacute;a un estilo afectivo m&aacute;s "saludable".</font></p>     <p align="center"><a name="tab7"></a>    <br>   <img src="/fbpe/img/terpsicol/v30n2/tab6.7.gif" width="775" height="402"></p>     
<p><font face="verdana" size="2">Respecto a la comparaci&oacute;n entre subgrupos de agresores y el grupo de control, los agresores del grupo 1 solo presentar&iacute;an diferencias estad&iacute;sticamente significativas en la escala 2 del CAA, mostrando as&iacute; mayor resoluci&oacute;n hostil de conflictos, rencor y posesividad. El grupo 2 mostrar&iacute;a m&aacute;s diferencias significativas respecto al grupo de control, con puntuaciones significativamente menores en la escalas del CAA <i>1</i> (baja autoestima, necesidad de aprobaci&oacute;n y miedo al rechazo), <i>2</i> (resoluci&oacute;n hostil de conflictos, rencor y po&#45;sesividad) y <i>4</i> (autosuficiencia emocional e incomodidad con la intimidad), todas ellas variables relacionadas con un apego no seguro. Asimismo presentan significativamente m&aacute;s autoestima o menor malestar emp&aacute;tico (una variable relacionada con un malestar egoc&eacute;ntrico).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Discusi&oacute;n</b></font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Los resultados obtenidos no han permitido confirmar las hip&oacute;tesis de las que se part&iacute;a. As&iacute; pues, se esperaba un estilo afectivo diferente en los agresores respecto al grupo de control, con una menor empat&iacute;a, una autoestima m&aacute;s baja y estilos de apego problem&aacute;ticos, como el inseguro o el ansioso. Junto a ello, se esperaba poder diferenciar distintos tipos de agresores a partir de estas variables. Pese a que el establecimiento de dos grupos ha sido posible, las diferencias respecto al grupo de control no han sido las esperadas.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Respecto a la variable <i>apego adulto,</i> los resultados no han permitido establecer diferencias congruentes con investigaciones previas entre agresores y controles (Fournier et al., 2011; Lawson &amp; Brossart, 2009; Mauricio &amp; L&oacute;pez, 2009; Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2007; Tweed &amp; Dutton, 1998).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Con las puntuaciones obtenidas no se ha podido clasificar al grupo de control en ning&uacute;n tipo de apego y los agresores se ubicar&iacute;an en puntuaciones propias del apego seguro (para dos dimensiones) y el apego preocupado o alejado (para cuatro dimensiones). Como ya se ha comentado, no existen estudios previos en los que se haya utilizado el CAA para valorar agresores de pareja, por lo que tampoco es posible comparar las puntuaciones.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Los resultados obtenidos en <i>autoestima</i> van en contra de la hip&oacute;tesis predominante a nivel acad&eacute;mico de que la conducta violenta se relaciona con una baja autoestima. Sin embargo, son congruentes con las propuestas m&aacute;s recientes que ponen en entredicho esta afirmaci&oacute;n y se&ntilde;alan que la autoestima no tiene un efecto independiente sobre la violencia (Bushman et al., 2009; Maples et al., 2010; Ostrowsky, 2010; Thomaes &amp; Bushman, 2011). Las hip&oacute;tesis que podr&iacute;an explicar la presencia de una elevada autoestima entre agresores podr&iacute;an ser las siguientes: 1) la autoestima no est&aacute; asociada con la conducta violenta y realmente no existen diferencias entre las personas violentas y las que no lo son (Ostrowsky, 2010); 2) la escala utilizada es poco sensible o espec&iacute;fica y no eval&uacute;a las posibles dimensiones de la autoestima que podr&iacute;an explicar distintas conductas (Ostrowsky, 2010; Sakellaropoulo &amp; Baldwin, 2007; Walker &amp; Bright, 2009; Webster et al., 2007); y 3) los resultados podr&iacute;an ser reflejo de la existencia de una falsa autoestima inflada en los agresores, con un trasfondo de baja autoestima y rasgos narcisistas (Bushman et al., 2009; Maples et al., 2010; Salmivalli, 2001; Walker &amp; Bright, 2009). Las puntuaciones en autoestima podr&iacute;an considerarse similares a las de otros estudios con muestras espa&ntilde;olas, con una autoestima media alta (Echebur&uacute;a, Fern&aacute;ndez&#45;Montalvo &amp; Amor, 2003; Echebur&uacute;a et al., 2006), aunque la puntuaci&oacute;n ser&iacute;a superior a la obtenida en medidas post&#45;tratamiento (Echebur&uacute;a &amp; Fern&aacute;ndez&#45;Montalvo, 2009).</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Por &uacute;ltimo, la ausencia de diferencias en <i>empat&iacute;a,</i> pese a ser un resultado poco esperado, es congruente con investigaciones recientes. As&iacute;, se afirma que la empat&iacute;a depende del contexto o de la v&iacute;ctima y no es un rasgo estable (Day et al., 2011; Marshall et al., 2009; Mart&iacute;nez, Redondo, P&eacute;rez &amp; Garc&iacute;a, 2008), y que realmente no es una variable que permita diferenciar agresores de grupos normativos ni que su tratamiento pueda reducir la reincidencia (Day et al., 2010; Huss &amp; Ralston, 2008; Jolliffe &amp; Farrington, 2004). Tal vez por eso, las tasas de psicopat&iacute;a son m&aacute;s bajas de las esperadas en muestras de agresores encarcelados (Echebur&uacute;a &amp; Fern&aacute;ndez&#45;Montalvo, 2007; Fern&aacute;ndez&#45;Montalvo &amp; Echebur&uacute;a, 2008). Respecto a otras muestras de agresores, nuestro grupo presenta puntuaciones similares en los dos primeros factores, algo superiores en el factor 3 e intermedias en el 4 (Boira &amp; Tom&aacute;s, 2011;</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">Covell et al., 2007).</font></p>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font face="verdana" size="2">La investigaci&oacute;n presenta una serie de limitaciones que deben ser tenidas en cuenta a la hora de valorar los</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">resultados. En primer lugar, no se ha tomado en cuenta la deseabilidad social, una variable que puede influir directamente en las puntuaciones obtenidas (Novo, Fari&ntilde;a, Seijo &amp; Ace, 2012). La escala de deseabilidad social de Marlowe &amp; Crowne se hab&iacute;a incluido en el protocolo de evaluaci&oacute;n de los agresores, pero su ausencia en el grupo de control ha hecho que el an&aacute;lisis de la variable no se haya incorporado a este estudio. Por otro lado, pese a que se han descrito las variables en los agresores y se han establecido dos grupos a partir de estas, no se ha determinado la asociaci&oacute;n entre un peor "funcionamiento afectivo" y una gravedad diferencial de la violencia, por ejemplo en las respuestas dadas en la CTS&#45;2. Este aspecto podr&iacute;a resultar de gran inter&eacute;s para investigaciones futuras.</font></p>      <p><font face="verdana" size="2">En definitiva, los resultados no permiten apoyar la posible utilidad de incluir este tipo de variables en los programas de tratamiento (en l&iacute;nea con estudios previos de Day et al., 2010), pese a que ser&aacute;n necesarias futuras replicaciones de los resultados para poder alcanzar esta conclusi&oacute;n. Uno de los principales problemas en este &aacute;mbito de investigaci&oacute;n es la fiabilidad de las medidas de evaluaci&oacute;n (Jolliffe &amp; Farrington, 2004; Ostrowsky, 2010; Walker &amp; Bright, 2009; Walker &amp; Knauer, 2011). Habitualmente, los instrumentos se han validado en muestras de estudiantes y podemos estar haciendo atribuciones sobre la mayor o menor presencia de una determinada variable cuando las muestras no son comparables. Pese al inter&eacute;s que supone comprender mejor el mecanismo mediante el cual las variables afectivas, como la empat&iacute;a, el apego y la autoestima, est&aacute;n relacionadas con la agresi&oacute;n para dise&ntilde;ar estrategias de intervenci&oacute;n adecuadas, antes resulta imprescindible establecer puntuaciones espec&iacute;ficas para muestras concretas que nos permitan valorar con precisi&oacute;n los resultados obtenidos.</font></p>  	    <p><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Referencias</b></font></p>      <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Alonso&#45;Arbiol, I., Balluerka N., &amp; Shaver, P. R. (2007). A spanish version of the experiences in close relationships (ECR) adult attachment questionnaire. <i>Personal Relationships, 14,</i> 45&#45;63.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600001&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Alonso&#45;Arbiol, I., Shaver, P. R., &amp; Yarnoz, S. (2002). Insecure attachment, gender roles, and interpersonal dependency in the Basque Country. <i>Personal Relationships, 9,</i> 479&#45;490.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600002&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Amor, P. J., Echebur&uacute;a, E., &amp; Loinaz, I. 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<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Sakellaropoulo, M., &amp; Baldwin, M. W. (2007). The hidden sides of self&#45;esteem: Two dimensions of implicit self&#45;esteem and their relation to narcissistic reactions. <i>Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43,</i></font> <font face="verdana" size="2">995&#45;1001.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600075&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>      <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Salmivalli, C. (2001). Feeling good about oneself, being bad to others? Remarks on self&#45;esteem, hostility, and aggressive behavior. <i>Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6,</i> 375&#45;393.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600076&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>      <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Sandstrom, M. J., &amp; Jordan, R. (2008). Defensive self&#45;esteem and aggression in childhood. <i>Journal of Research in Personality, 42,</i> 506&#45;514.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600077&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Saunders, D. G. (1992). A typology of men who batter: Three types derived from cluster analysis. <i>American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,</i></font> <font face="verdana" size="2"><i>62,</i> 264&#45;275.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600078&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>      <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Shaver, P. R., &amp; Mikulincer, M. (2011). <i>Human aggression and violence.</i></font> <font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Causes manifestations and consequences.</i> Washington, DC: American</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">Psychological Association.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600079&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2"> Taylor, L. D., Davis&#45;Kean, P., &amp; Malanchuk, O. (2007). Self&#45;esteem,</font> <font face="verdana" size="2">academic self&#45;concept, and aggression at school. <i>Aggressive Behavior,</i></font> <font face="verdana" size="2"><i>33,</i> 130&#45;136.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600080&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Thomaes, S., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2011). Mirror, mirror, on the wall, who's the most aggressive of them all?. Narcissism, self&#45;esteem, and aggression. En P. R. Shaver, &amp; M. Mikulincer (Eds.), <i>Human aggression and violence. Causes, manifestations, and consequences</i> (pp. 203&#45;219). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600081&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Stegge, H., &amp; Olthof, T. (2008). Trumping shame by blasts of noise: Narcissism, self&#45;esteem, shame, and aggression in young adolescents. <i>Child development, 79,</i> 1792&#45;1801.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600082&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Tweed, R. G., &amp; Dutton, D. G. (1998). A comparison of impulsive and instrumental subgroups of batterers. <i>Violence and Victims, 13,</i> 217&#45;230.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600083&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">V&aacute;zquez, J., Jim&eacute;nez, R., &amp; V&aacute;zquez&#45;Morej&oacute;n, R. (2004). Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg: fiabilidad y validez en poblaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica espa&ntilde;ola. <i>Apuntes de Psicolog&iacute;a, 22,</i> 247&#45;255.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600084&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Walker, J. S., &amp; Bright, J. A. (2009). False inflated self&#45;esteem and violence: A systematic review and cognitive model. <i>Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 20,</i> 1&#45;32.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600085&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Walker, J. S., &amp; Knauer, V. (2011). Humiliation, self&#45;esteem and violence. <i>Journal of Forensic Psychiatry &amp; Psychology, 22,</i> 724&#45;741.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600086&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p><font face="verdana" size="2">Webster, G. D., Kirkpatrick, L. A., Nezlek, J. B., Smith, C. V., &amp; Paddock, E. L. (2007). Different slopes for different folks: Self&#45;esteem instability and gender as moderators of the relationship between self&#45;esteem and attitudinal aggression. <i>Self and Identity, 6,</i> 74&#45;94.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scieloOrg/php/reflinks.php?refpid=S0718-4808201200020000600087&pid=S0718-48082012000200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');"></a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p> 	<hr align="left" width="30%" size="1"> 	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">(Rec: 15 de marzo de 2012 / Acep: 2 de mayo de 2012). </font></p> 	    <p><font face="verdana" size="2">Parte del estudio ha sido posible gracias a las ayudas econ&oacute;micas concedidas al primer autor por el Centro de Estudios Jur&iacute;dicos y Formaci&oacute;n Especializada (Departament de Justicia, Generalitat de Catalunya; Proyecto SC&#45;3.167.10) y del Gobierno Vasco (Programa de Formaci&oacute;n de Personal Investigador; Proyecto BFI&#45;09.185). Este estudio ha sido apoyado por el Grupo Consolidado de Investigaci&oacute;n en Psicolog&iacute;a Cl&iacute;nica del Gobierno Vasco y por la UFI 11/04 de la Universidad del Pa&iacute;s Vasco UPV/EHU.</font></p>         <p><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="back" id="back"></a><a href="#top"><img src="/fbpe/img/terpsicol/v30n2/flecha.jpg" alt="" width="15" height="17"></a>Correspondencia: La correspondencia relacionada con este art&iacute;culo debe ser dirigida a Ismael Loinaz, Universidad del Pa&iacute;s Vasco UPV/EHU, Facultad de Psicolog&iacute;a &#45; Departamento de Personalidad, Evaluaci&oacute;n y Tratamiento Psicol&oacute;gico. Avda. de Tolosa, 70. 20018 San Sebasti&aacute;n (Espa&ntilde;a). E&#45;mail: ismael. <a href="mailto:loinaz@gmail.com">loinaz@gmail.com</a></font></p>     
 ]]></body><back>
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