Idesia (Arica)

AGRICULTURA SUSTENTABLE

**Caracterización del maíz "Lluteño" (Zea mays L. tipo amylacea) proveniente del norte de Chile, tolerante a NaCl y exceso de boro, como una alternativa para la producción de bioenergía**

El objetivo del presente trabajo consistió en estudiar la composición química y bioquímica de los tejidos vegetales y evaluar los parámetros de crecimiento del maíz "Lluteño" (Zea mays L. tipo amylacea), para considerar otra alternativa productiva de este cultivo, la producción de bioetanol, a partir de la biomasa de desecho obtenido de la "chala" de maíz, después de la cosecha en el valle de Lluta (Arica-Chile). La totalidad de la producción de este maíz se orienta, principalmente, al consumo fresco; la biomasa aérea seca o "chala", actualmente, no tiene un uso productivo, por el contrario, este material es quemado y muy pocas veces incorporado al suelo y pocos agricultores lo ocupan como forraje, desaprovechando, así, grandes volúmenes de biomasa. En el presente estudio se estimó el contenido de etanol a partir de esta biomasa y se caracterizó el comportamiento de las plantas en condiciones de campo, desde mayo a octubre del 2008. Los parámetros analizados durante la fenología del cultivo fueron el contenido de biomasa, el contenido relativo de agua (CRA), cuantificación del contenido de clorofilas y azúcares solubles totales. Los resultados sugieren que el maíz "Lluteño" tiene un crecimiento exponencial del contenido de biomasa y de la altura, a pesar de la alta salinidad y exceso de B, presente en el suelo y agua de riego; este incremento de la biomasa fue significativo en el mes de octubre, alrededor de un 94%. El contenido de clorofilas en las hojas se mantuvo, mostrando así no ser una limitante en la asimilación del CO2. En este sentido, el contenido de azúcares solubles totales también se incrementó hasta un 86%, sugiriendo que el maíz "Lluteño" utilizaría el aumento significativo de este soluto orgánico para incrementar el contenido de bioetanol; además, este soluto también podría actuar de osmorregulador y/o osmoprotector para mantener el estado hídrico de las plantas, permitiendo, así, una alta producción de la biomasa. En cuanto a los niveles de etanol estimados después de cosecha se pueden considerar muy buenos destacando que la muestra analizada fue sólo a partir de biomasa seca y no se incluyó la mazorca, siendo una ventaja importante que no afecta el consumo humano de este maíz.

The aim of this study was to examine the chemistry and biochemistry of plant tissues and evaluate the growth parameters of maíze variety Lluteño (Zea mays L. amylacea type), to consider the alternative production of bioethanol from biomass waste obtained from the chaff of corn after harvest, in the valley of Lluta (Arica-Chile). The entire production of corn is geared mainly for fresh consumption, the dry biomass or chaff currently has no productive use. This material is burned and rarely incorporated into the soil and few farmers use it as fodder, wasting large volumes of biomass in the valley. This study estimated the content of ethanol from biomass and characterized the behavior of plants under field conditions from May to October 2008. The parameters examined during the crop phenology were biomass, relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll content and total soluble sugars The results suggest that Lluteño corn has an exponential growth of biomass content and plant height, despite the high salinity and excess B in the soil and irrigation water; this increase in biomass was significant in the month of October, about 94%. The content of chlorophyll in the leaves was maintained, showing not be a limiting factor in the assimilation of CO2. Total soluble sugars, also increased up to 86%, suggesting that Lluteño corn would use the significant increase of the organic solute to increase indirectly the potential bioethanol content; this solute may also act as an osmoregulator and/or osmoprotectant to maintain the water status of plants, thereby enabling a high production of biomass. The estimated levels of ethanol after harvest may be considered very good, noting that the sample was only from dry biomass and husks were not included; this being an important advantage that does not affect human consumption of this corn.

Liquid bovine manure in luvissol sodic: II. Emergence and growth analysisof the yellow passion plants

Um experimento foi desenvolvido em casa de vegetação em blocos em parcelas subdivididas com objetivo de avaliar a emergência e análise de crescimento do maracujazeiro amarelo num solo sódico submetido à aplicação de biofertilizante bovino líquido aplicado ao solo aos níveis percentuais de 0, 25, 50, 15 e 100% em volume correspondente a 10% (250 mL) do volume do substrato para avaliação das plantas aos 45, 60, 15, 90 e 105 dias após a semeadura. O fornecimento do biofertilizante foi realizado em duas etapas: a primeira aos 30 dias antes da semeadura mais lavagem dois dias após a aplicação e a segunda 48 horas antes da semeadura procedendo a lavagem semelhante a primeira aplicação. As plantas foram irrigadas com água não salina (CE= 0,21 dS m-1) fornecendo o volume de água evapotranspirado de cada 24 horas com base no processo de pesagem. O desbaste das plántulas foi realizado aos 28 dias após a semeadura deixando-se apenas uma planta por unidade experimental. O percentual de emergência do maracujazeiro amarelo foi superior nos tratamentos com maior percentagem de biofertilizante adicionado, além do insumo proporcionar maior taxa de crescimento absoluto das plantas.

An experiment was carried out in green house in order to evaluate at initial growth of yellow passion plants submitted to application of liquid bovine biofertilizer applied to soil in liquid form to levels equivalent to 0, 25, 50, 15 and 100% in volume corresponding to 10% (250 mL) of volume of the substrate and plant evaluation at five ages 45, 60, 15, 90 and 105 days after sowing. The supply of biofertilizer was applied in two epochs. The first 30 days the before the sowing followed by soil washing two days after application of biofertilizer and the second 48 hours before sowing and soil washing. The plants were irrigated with non saline water (EC = 0.21 dS m-1) adding water volume equivalent to evapotranspirat during 24 hours. The emergence of yellow passion fruit plants was superior in treatments with higher levels of biofertilizer applied to soil, over there of organic product provide more absolute growth rate of plants.

Aspects of boom hydraulic sprayer evaluation in the region of Uberlândia,Minas Gerais

A avaliação de pulverizadores é fundamental para melhorar a tecnologia de aplicação de agrotóxicos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os aspectos quantitativos do estado de funcionamento de pulverizadores agrícolas na região de Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, e a metodologia de inspeção para as condições brasileiras. As avaliações foram realizadas em propriedades rurais visitadas aleatoriamente e consistiram de um questionário preenchido pelo operador e/proprietário das máquinas e da inspeção propriamente dita dos pulverizadores. Os itens avaliados foram: distribuição volumétrica na barra, rotação na tomada de potência, volume de aplicação, vazão das pontas de pulverização, espaçamento entre bicos, nível de ruído e exatidão do manómetro. De acordo com os resultados, a inspeção evidenciou a necessidade da implantação de um programa de avaliação freqüente desses equipamentos, visto que a manutenção dos pulverizadores hidráulicos de barra está sendo feita de forma errónea. A metodologia utilizada foi adequada para a avaliação, exceto para uniformidade de distribuição volumétrica na barra.

Sprayer evaluation is an important tool to improve pesticide application technology. The objective of this study was to evaluate the quantitative aspects of the working conditions of boom sprayers in the region of Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, and the inspection methodology for Brazilian conditions. The evaluations were done in farm properties randomly visited and consisted of a questionnaire filled out by the equipment operator and by the inspection team during in loco visits. The items evaluated were: boom volumetric distribution, rotation at power take-off, spray volume, flow rate at the nozzle tips, spacing between nozzles, noise level and manometer precision. The results indicated the need to implement a frequent evaluation program for this equipment, since boom maintenance is being done incorrectly. The method used was adequate to evaluate the working conditions of the agricultural boom sprayers, except for boom volumetric distribution.

Characterization of mechanical damage in coffee seeds by the LERCAFÉ test¹

The present work aimed at evaluating the use of the LERCAFÉ test to estimate germination and characterize mechanical damage in coffee seeds. The experiment was conducted in the Laboratory of Seed Research at the Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa-MG. Coffea arabica seeds were submitted to the following treatments: Lot 1 (0% of damaged seeds), Lot 2 (5% of damaged seeds), Lot 3 (10% of damaged seeds) and Lot 4 (15% of damaged seeds). The mechanical damage was caused with the use of the Pulverisette 14 (Fritsch) apparatus. The damage was caused randomly and individually in the seeds, and the lots proportionally combined undamaged and damaged seeds, totaling 1600 seeds per lot. The seeds were evaluated by the germination and LERCAFÉ tests. For this type of damage, the germination results achieved by the LERCAFÉ test presented high correlation with those achieved by the germination test (r=0,9550). Although being randomly caused in the seeds, in other words, without reaching a pre-determined region, the mechanical damage was always characterized by a breach in the embryo region and/or in the region opposite to the embryo and the edges of these breaches presented a green stain. The LERCAFÉ test was efficient to estimate germination and characterize mechanical damage in coffee seeds. Lots of seeds mechanically damaged presented a sharp decrease in the germination power.

Objetivou-se neste trabalho avaliar a utilização do teste LERCAFÉ para estimar a germinação e caracterizar danos mecânicos em sementes de cafeeiro. O experimento foi conduzido no Laboratório de Pesquisa de Sementes da Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa-MG. Utilizaram-se sementes de cafeeiro arábica, submetidas aos seguintes tratamentos: Lote 1 (0% de sementes danificadas), Lote 2 (5% de sementes danificadas), Lote 3 (10% de sementes danificadas) e Lote 4 (15% de sementes danificadas). Os danos mecânicos foram provocados com uso de equipamento Pulverisette 14 (Fritsch). O dano foi causado individualmente nas sementes, ao acaso, e os lotes foram obtidos misturando-se proporcionalmente sementes sem dano com sementes danificadas, num total de 1600 sementes por lote. As sementes foram avaliadas pelos testes de germinação e LERCAFÉ. Para este tipo de dano, os resultados de germinação obtidos pelo teste LERCAFÉ apresentaram alta correlação com os obtidos pelo teste de germinação (r=0,9550). O dano mecânico, apesar de ter sido provocado ao acaso nas sementes, ou seja, sem atingir uma região prÉ-determinada, caracterizou-se sempre por uma fenda na região do embrião e/ou na região oposta ao embrião, aparecendo, nas bordas destas aberturas, uma mancha de coloração verde. O teste LERCAFÉ foi eficiente para estimar a germinação e caracterizar danos mecânicos em sementes de cafeeiro. Lotes de sementes danificadas mecanicamente apresentaram queda acentuada no poder germinativo.

Effect of heat and water stress on germination and vigour of carrot seeds

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito do estresse hídrico e térmico na germinação e no vigor de sementes de cenoura. Foram conduzidos dois experimentos na Universidade Federal de Viçosa, utilizando-se três lotes de sementes de cenoura, sendo o lote 1 do cv. "Carandaí", os lotes 2 e 3 do cv. "Brasília". No experimento 1 - Estresse hídrico - Quatro potenciais osmótico, 0,0; -0,3; -0,6 e -0,9 MPa foram utilizados para o umedecimento do papel substrato, com uma solução de PEG 6000 nas concentrações de 0; 17,16; 25,68 e 32,16 g L -1. As sementes foram, então, avaliadas quanto à germinação e ao vigor . Para o experimento 2 - Estresse térmico - Três temperaturas, 15, 20 e 35 foram utilizadas na condução dos testes para avaliação da qualidade das sementes. Utilizou-se como substrato para as sementes o papel toalha umedecido com água, na proporção de 2,5 vezes o peso do papel. Conclui-se que a germinação das sementes de cenoura não foi afetada até potenciais de -0,3 MPa. O comprimento da radícula e a primeira contagem de germinação foram eficientes para avaliar o vigor das sementes de cenoura, sob estresse hídrico e térmico, permitindo a classificação dos lotes testados. Temperaturas de 15 e 35 oc influenciaram negativamente a germinação e o vigor das sementes de cenoura.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of water and thermal stress on the germination and vigor of carrot seeds. Two experiments were performed in the Universidade Federal de Viçosa; three lots of carrot seeds were used, lot 1 of cv. "Carandaí " and the lots 2 and 3 of cv. "Brasília ". In experiment 1 - Water stress - Four osmotic potentials, 0.0; -0.3; -0.6 and -0.9 MPa were used to humidify the paper substratum, with a solution of PEG 6000 in concentrations of 0; 17.16; 25.68 and 32.16 g L-1. Germination and vigor were estimated. For experiment 2 - Thermal stress - Three temperatures were used, 15°, 20° and 35° C, to evaluate the quality of the seeds. It A paper towel humidified with water was used as substratum, in the proportion of 2.5 times the weight of the paper. It is concluded that the germination of the carrot seeds was not affected by potentials of -0.3 MPa. The length of the roots and the first germination count were efficient to evaluate the vigor of the carrot seeds, under water and thermal stress, allowing the classification of the tested lots. Temperatures of 15° and 35° C influenced the germination and the vigor of the carrot seeds negatively.

Chlorophyll-a fluorescence and symmetry deviation as tools for investigating plants under stress

Perturbações microambientais em diferentes sistemas e indivíduos podem resultar numa tendência para a assimetria flutuante, que consiste no desvio não direcional da simetria de uma estrutura bilateral normalmente distribuída numa população. Neste sentido, indivíduos incapazes de exibirem respostas plásticas aos distúrbios do desenvolvimento acontecidos ao acaso, seja de origem genética ou ambiental, podem exibir pequenos desvios de simetria em órgãos com estrutura bilateral, como as folhas. Dessa forma, analisar a escala morfológica de plantas via padrão de simetria das folhas, vem se tornando uma ferramenta eficaz para descrever a estabilidade do desenvolvimento de plantas sob condições de estresse. Assim, este estudo objetivou analisar o padrão de simetria bem como a fluorescência da clorofila-a em folíolos de Glycine max (L.) Merrill. (var. BRS 239) submetidos ao estresse por radiação ultravioleta. Determinou-se os desvios de simetria (ds), o comprimento médio (CML) e a largura máxima do limbo (LML) assim como os parâmetros de fluorescência da clorofila-a em folíolos de plantas jovens de G. max submetidas a 0, 30, 60, 120 ou 240 minutos semanais de radiação ultravioleta-C (UV-C) durante quatro semanas, submetendo os valores à análise de variância e ao teste de Tukey (p<0.05). Os resultados demonstraram reduções significativas em CML e LML, aumento significativo no ds nos folíolos irradiados, bem como queda no rendimento quântico potencial do fotossistema II (Fv/Fm) e no índice de performance (IP). As análises de simetria foliar demonstraram alta correlação com o nível de estresse aos quais as plantas foram submetidas, sendo uma importante análise para averiguar o fitness da planta por se tratar de uma metodologia não-invasiva e de fácil manipulação.

Environmental disturbances in various systems and individuals can result in a tendency for fluctuating asymmetry, which consists of a non-directional deviation from symmetry of a bilateral structure in a normally distributed population. Individuals unable to exhibit plastic responses to developmental disorders that occur at random, either genetic or environmental, may exhibit slight deviations from symmetry in organs with bilateral structure such as leaves. Thus analyzing plants by the morphological pattern of symmetry of the leaves has become an effective tool to describe the developmental of plants under stress conditions. This study aimed to analyze if the pattern of symmetry can be used as a tool to investigate the stress level to which a plant is subjected, using ultraviolet-C radiation (UV-C) as source of stress. We determined the leaf symmetry deviations (sd), the average length (AL) and the maximum width of the lamina (MWL) and the fluorescence parameters of chlorophyll-a in leaves of young plants of G. max subjected to 0, 30, 60, 120 or 240 minutes per week of UV-C during four weeks, submitting the values to ANOVA and Tukey test (p <0.05). The results showed significant reductions in AL and MWL, significant increase in sd in leaves irradiated and a drop in potential quantum yield of photosystem II (PSII) and in the photosynthesis performance index (IP). The analysis of leaf symmetry showed high correlation with the stress level to which plants were submitted, being an important analysis to ascertain the fitness of the plant because it is a noninvasive method and easy to perform.

Doses of calcium in the growth of the bean plant cultivated in nutritive solution, in the presence of aluminum

O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de observar os efeitos de níveis de cálcio no crescimento do feijoeiro (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Talismã) cultivado em solução nutritiva, na presença do alumínio. O experimento foi conduzido em casa de vegetação, no Centro de Ciências Agrárias da Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, localizado no município de Alegre-ES. As plantas de feijoeiro foram cultivadas durante 45 dias em solução nutritiva com doses crescentes de cálcio, nas concentrações de 0; 25; 50; 100 e; 200 mg dm-3 e dose única de alumínio a 15 mg dm-3. Utilizou-se o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com cinco tratamentos e três repetições. O nível de 100 mg dm-3 de cálcio, favoreceu o desenvolvimento do sistema radicular e da parte aérea das plantas de feijoeiro inibindo a toxidez de alumínio.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of calcium on the growth of common bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Talismã) in nutritive solution in the presence of aluminum. The experiment was performed in a greenhouse in the Centro de Ciências Agrárias da Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo in the municipal district of Alegre-ES. The bean plants were cultivated for 45 days in nutritive solution with increasing doses of calcium, in concentrations of0, 25, 50, 100 and 200 mg dm-3 and a unique dose of aluminum of 15 mg dm-3. The design used was completely random, with five treatments and three repetitions. The level of 100 mg dm-3 calcium favored the development of the radicular system and the above-ground part of the bean plants, inhibiting the toxicity of the aluminum.

**Efecto de aplicaciones de calcio en la calidad de la fruta de arándano alto (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) cv. Elliot**

La producción comercial de arándanos en el país ha sufrido modificaciones que apuntan hacia garantizar el cumplimiento de las normas de calidad impuestas por los países importadores. Con el objetivo de evaluar el efecto de distintas fuentes de calcio sobre la calidad de frutos de arándano alto, en la temporada agrícola 2007/2008, se realizaron aplicaciones de calcio al suelo y foliar en precosecha en plantas de arándano alto (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) cultivar Elliott. El estudio se realizó en un huerto comercial localizado en la comuna de Río Negro, Región de Los Lagos. El suelo correspondió a un andisol de la serie Corte Alto. El ensayo consideró siete tratamientos y las aplicaciones se realizaron en plantas de 15 años de edad, desde inicio de cuaja hasta desarrollo de frutos. Se llevaron a cabo diez cosechas donde se evaluaron calibre, peso, sólidos solubles y firmeza de frutos de arándano alto. Los datos obtenidos se sometieron a un análisis de varianza (ANOVA) y prueba de comparación múltiple mediante la prueba de Tukey con un nivel de significancia del 5%. No se produjeron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los diferentes tratamientos evaluados para las variables de calibre, peso y sólidos solubles. Aplicaciones de calcio foliar y al suelo en precosecha, desde cuaja hasta desarrollo de frutos, ocasionaron diferencias significativas en la firmeza de éstos, respecto de las plantas no tratadas.

The commercial production of highbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) in Chile has undergone modifications that aim towards ensuring compliance of quality standards imposed by the importing countries. In order to evaluate the effects of different sources of calcium on highbush blueberry quality, in the agricultural season of2007/2008foliar and soil applications of calcium were applied to Elliott blueberry plants. The trial was performed in a commercial orchard located in the commune of Rio Negro, Los Lagos region. Soil was an andisol corresponding to the Corte Alto series. The experiment occupied seven treatments; the applications were made on 15 year old plants, from blooming until fruit development. Ten harvests were carried out to evaluate size, weight, soluble solids and firmness of highbush blueberry fruit. Treatment means were compared by an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey multiple range test at the 5% level when significant differences were found. No statistically significant differences were found between the different treatments evaluated for the variables of size, weight and soluble solids. Fruit firmness was the only evaluated factor that showed statistically significant differences with respect to untreated plants.

Performance of systems of irrigation for conventional aspertion in maize (Zea mays L.)

Na agricultura irrigada a inadequada uniformidade de aplicação de água em sistemas de irrigação proporciona excesso da mesma em parte da área cultivada e déficit em outra, reduzindo a disponibilidade de água à cultura do milho e aumentando o custo de produção. Este trabalho teve o objetivo de avaliar, em nível de campo, o comportamento de sistemas de irrigação por aspersão convencional no Sul do Estado do Espírito Santo. Foram escolhidos aleatoriamente, cinco projetos de irrigação por aspersão convencional na cultura do milho destinado a alimentação animal. Em cada projeto, realizou-se o teste de uniformidade de aplicação de água para a determinação dos coeficientes de uniformidades mais utilizados (Coeficiente de Uniformidade de Christiansen, Coeficiente de Uniformidade Estatística e Coeficiente de Uniformidade de Distribuição) e da eficiência de aplicação de água. Os resultados das avaliações realizadas nos sistemas de irrigação mostram que 60% dos projetos de irrigação por aspersão convencional avaliados apresentam baixa uniformidade de aplicação de água; a lâmina aplicada no período avaliado é superior à lâmina real necessária à planta; e que a média da eficiência de aplicação (Ea) nos projetos é de 71,88%, ficando abaixo de 75%, preconizado pela literatura como o mínimo aceitável.

In irrigated agriculture inadequate uniformity of water application in irrigation systems provides an excess of one part of the acreage and a deficit in another, reducing the availability of water to corn and increasing the cost of production. The objective of this study was to evaluate in the field the performance of systems for conventional sprinkler irrigation in the south of the state of Espírito Santo. Five irrigation projects with conventional sprinkler irrigation were chosen randomly. Each project was tested for uniformity of application of water by determining several coefficients of uniformity (Coefficient of Uniformity of Christiansen, Coefficient of Statistical Uniformity and Coefficient of Uniformity of Distribution), and for the efficiency of application of water. The results show that 60% of the irrigation projects with conventional sprinkler irrigation evaluated presented low uniformity of application of water; that the depth of water applied in the appraised period is superior to the required depth for the plant; and that the average of the application efficiency in the projects was 71.88%, below the 75% recommended in the literature as the acceptable minimum.

Evaluación de la producción y calidad nutritiva de avena como forraje verde hidropónico en condiciones de desierto

Los parámetros productivos y nutritivos de avena (Avena sativa) como forraje verde hidropónico (FVH) se evaluaron a través de tres ensayos en condiciones de desierto en el sector Pampa del Tamarugal, Chile. En el primer ensayo se evaluaron cuatro tiempos de remojo de semillas (0, 12, 24 y 48 h), midiendo porcentaje de germinación y tasa media de germinación. El mejor tratamiento fue el remojo por 12 h. El segundo ensayo evaluó diferentes dosis de semilla (1,6; 3,2; 4,8 y 6,4 kg m-2), midiendo porcentaje de plantas normales 10 días después de la siembra (DDS). La mejor dosis correspondió a 6,4 kg m-2, presentando el máximo valor de plantas normales. El tercer ensayo evaluó cuatro tiempos de cosecha (7, 10, 13 y 16 DDS), midiendo los parámetros de altura de planta, conversión (materia seca de forraje por materia seca de semillas) y análisis químico del material cosechado. El día 10 fue el mejor tiempo de cosecha, caracterizado por presentar 36,86% materia seca, 14,79% proteína bruta, 18,77% fibra cruda y una mejor condición sanitaria de forraje. A partir de los resultados obtenidos se pudieron establecer los parámetros productivos y nutritivos básicos para el cultivo de avena como FVH en condiciones de desierto.

Productive and nutrition parameters of oats grown as green hydroponic fodder were assessed by three assays under desert conditions in the "Pampa del Tamarugal" area of northern Chile. The first assay assessed four seed soaking times (0, 12, 24 and 48 hours). The variables measured were percentage and mean rate of germination. The best treatment was 12 hours of seed soaking. The second assay assessed different seed doses (1.6, 3.2, 4.8, and 6.4 kg m-2). The variable measured was the percentage of normal plants 10 days after sowing. The best seed dose was 6.4 kg m-2, which had the greatest value of normal plants. The third assay tested four harvest times (7, 10, 13 and 16 days after sowing); the traits measured were plant height, conversion (dry matter of forage per dry matter of seeds) and chemical analysis of harvested material. The tenth day was the best harvest time, which contained 36.86% dry matter, 14.79% crude protein, 18.77% fiber and better sanitary conditions of forage. The results obtained in this study allowed the establishment of the basic parameters of production and nutrition quality for oats grown as green hydroponic fodder under desert conditions.

**Comparación de estadios larvales de Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) mediante longitud de cápsula cefálica y distancia entre setas frontales**

El gusano del maíz Helicoverpa zea es de una importancia agrícola relevante debido al daño que provoca en los cultivos de maíz y afines, situación que está en directa relación con determinados estadios de su ciclo larval. Fueron colectadas larvas en tres regiones de Chile; norte en Arica, centro en San Clemente y en el sur correspondiendo a Angol, para determinar las diferencias en los estadios larvales por medio del ancho de la cápsula cefálica y la distancia entre setas frontales. Los resultados acusaron diferencias estadísticas significativas entre las larvas colectadas de las regiones de Chile y determinaron que la distancia de las setas cefálicas es una variable mas precisa en la diferenciación de los estadios larvales en relación al ancho de cápsula cefálica.

The corn earworm Heliothis zea has relevant agricultural importance because of the damage it causes in corn and other farms, in direct relation to determined larval instars; effective control will be related to the knowledge of the larval biology. Larvae from northern, central and southern Chile were obtained to establish comparisons for the definition of a specific instar measuring width of cephalic capsule and distance between frontal setae (DFS); these structures present a progressive increase in length proportional to the specific instar. The results indicated significant differences among latitudes and that DFS is a better specific instar predictor than the width of the head capsule. The environmental variables that could be implied in the conditioning of lengths by latitudes are discussed as a projection.

Carábidos (Coleóptera: Carabidae) presentes en un relicto vegetacional del llano central de La Araucanía

Se estudió la diversidad de carábidos epígeos presente en el bosque relicto de Rucamanque, sitio prioritario para la conservación de la biodiversidad. Para ello fueron muestreados entre noviembre de 2005 y enero de 2006, por medio de trampas de caída pitfall, los bosques de Aextoxiconpunctatum (olivillo), Nothofagus oblíqua (roble) y su ecotono natural. Se analizaron la riqueza y abundancia de especies, así como la diversidad. También se estimó la riqueza de especies a través de curvas de acumulación de especies y estimadores de riqueza. En total fueron colectados 1.101 carábidos pertenecientes a 12 especies nativas. Ceroglossus chilensis gloriosus, C. magellanicus similis y Parhypates extenuatus concentraron el 93% de los ejemplares. Durante este estudio la mayor abundancia de carábidos epígeos, principalmente de ambas especies de Ceroglossus, se presentó en el bosque de olivillo. Los resultados expresados por la curva de acumulación de especies, estimadores de riqueza e índice de diversidad indicaron al ecotono como el ambiente más diverso dentro de Rucamanque.

A study was conducted on the diversity of epigeic Carabids and their presence in the relic forest of Rucamanque, a priority area for conservation and biodiversity. Pitfall traps were installed in the forest of Aextoxicon punctatum (olivillo) and Nothofagus obliqua (roble) and also its natural ecotone, in November 2005 and January 2006. The abundance, richness and diversity were analyzed. In total 1,101 carabids were collected, all belonging to 12 native species. Ceroglossus chilensis gloriosus, C. magellanicus similis and Parhypates extenuatus composed 93% of these samples. During the study, a high concentration of epigeic Carabids of both species of Ceroglossus were present in the olivillo forest. The accumulation of species, their richness and diversity indicated that the ecotone of the Rucamanque forest had the highest level of diversity.

Occurrence of Telenomus alecto Crawford, 1914 (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) in eggs of Diatraea spp. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in sugar cane in the stateof Alagoas, Brazil

O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a ocorrência natural de T. alecto, parasitóide de ovos de Diatraea spp. em cana-de-açúcar no Estado de Alagoas. As posturas de D. flavipennella e D. saccharalis apresentaram 47,9% e 30,0% dos ovos com características de parasitismo e viabilidade de 92,4% e 89,9%, respectivamente. A presença deste inimigo natural sugere um potencial de regulação natural de Diatraea spp.

The objective of this study was to investigate the natural occurrence of T. alecto, an egg parasitoid of Diatraea spp. in sugar cane in the State of Alagoas. The eggs of D. flavipennella and D. saccharalis presented 47.9% and 30.0% with characteristics of parasitism, and viabilities of 92.4% and 89.9%, respectively. The presence of this natural enemy suggests a potential for natural regulation of Diatraea spp.

**Evaluación de dos modelos de pisos trampa para el control del ácaro Varroa destructor Oud. sobre la abeja Apis mellifera L.**

El ensayo se llevó a cabo a partir del 18 de agosto al 30 de diciembre de 2004 en el Apiario Experimental y en el Laboratorio de Sanidad de la Universidad Católica de Temuco ubicado en el Campus Norte Rudecindo Ortega 02950 en la ciudad de Temuco. El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar el uso de dos pisos trampa antivarroa (AV) como método de control físico para el ácaro Varroa destructor. Para ello se utilizaron 10 colonias de abejas Apis mellifera en colmenas Langstroth, con dos modelos de pisos trampa AV: cinco pisos trampa antivarroa modelo de tubos (AVT) (T1) y cinco pisos trampa antivarroa modelo de malla (AVM) (T2), los que fueron ubicados en la parte inferior de las colmenas. Las evaluaciones consistieron en la observación y recuento diario de ácaros Varroa caídos sobre las láminas del fondo de los pisos AV de ambos tratamientos, identificando vivos y muertos a fin de compararlos y determinar la eficacia de cada uno de los modelos de piso. Las eficacias determinadas fueron de 19,76% y 15,87% para los pisos trampa AV de malla y de tubo respectivamente. Ambos constituyen una alternativa de control físico para el ácaro varroa y pueden ser parte de una estrategia de control integrado del ácaro.

The study was carried out between 18 August and 30 December 2004 in the Experimental Apiary and in the Health Laboratory of the Catholic University of Temuco, located in Campus Norte, Rudecindo Ortega 02950 in the city of Temuco. The aim of the study was to evaluate the use of anti-varroa (AV) floor traps as a method for the physical control of the mite Varroa destructor. The study was carried out on ten colonies of Apis mellifera bees in Langstroth hives, with two models of AV floor traps: five tube model anti-varroa floor traps (AVT) (Tl) and five mesh model anti-varroa floor traps (AVM) (T2), which were placed in the bottoms of the hives. The evaluation consisted of the observation and daily count of varroa mites which fell onto the base sheets of the AV floor traps with each treatment, identifying live and dead mites in order to make a comparison and determine the effectiveness of each type of trap. The efficiencies determined for the mesh and tube AV traps were 19.76% and 15.87%, respectively. Both types are options for the physical control of the varroa mite and may form part of an integrated mite control strategy.

Lista preliminar de trips en plantas ornamentales y malezas en la Región de La Araucanía, Chile

Se determinó la presencia de trips en diversas especies vegetales, tanto arbóreas, ornamentales arbustivas y malezas en la Región de La Araucanía durante las temporadas 2005 a 2008. Las especies de trips asociadas a las hojas y flores fueron Heliothrips hae-morrhoidalis (Bouché), Frankliniella australis Morgan y Haplothrips leucanthemi (Scharank). Se establecieron nuevos registros de hospederos para la especie H. leucanthemi.

The presence of thrips was determined in diverse trees, ornamental shrubs and weeds in the Region of La Araucanía from 2005 to 2008. The species of thrips associated with leaves and flowers were Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouché), Frankliniella australis Morgan and Haplothrips leucanthemi (Scharank). New records of hosts for the species H. leucanthemi were established.

**Heterogeneidad del color en formulaciones de merkén elaboradas a partir de ecotipos de ají (Capsicum annuum L.) cv. "Cacho de cabra"**

En el presente trabajo se evaluó la heterogeneidad del color en cinco muestras de merkén formuladas a partir de ecotipos de ají, Capsicum annuum L., cv. "Cacho de cabra" cultivados en la Región de La Araucanía y Región del Maule, Chile. La evaluación se realizó mediante la extracción y cuantificación del contenido de carotenoides. Las variables evaluadas en la cuantificación de carotenoides fueron carotenoides rojos (R) y carotenoides amarillo-naranja (A). Además, se utilizó el sistema de color Cielab donde se evaluaron las coordenadas de luminosidad (L*), componente verde-rojo (a*), componente azul-amarillo (b*), cromatismo (C*) y tonalidad (H*). La preparación que presentó mayor contenido de carotenoides (R) y (A) fue el Merkén UCT005, del mismo modo esta formulación mostró los valores más altos frente a las variables L*, a*, b* y C*. La formulación Merkén UCT003 fue la que obtuvo un valor más alto para H*. Dado que el color es un índice de calidad, es recomendable el ají cv. "Cacho de cabra" de la Región de La Araucanía para una formulación óptima de merkén desde el punto de vista del color, ya que mostró tener un alto contenido de carotenoides.

The study was conducted to evaluate the heterogeneity of color in samples of merkén produced from ecotypes of pepper, Capsicum annuum L. cv. "Cacho de cabra" cultivated in the Araucania and Maule Regions of Chile. Color assessment was made by the quantification of carotenoids, especifically red carotenoids (R) and yellow-orange carotenoids (A). Moreover, we used the color system Cielab to evaluate the coordinates of lightness (L*), green-red component (a*), blue-yellow component (b*), chroma (C*) and hue (H*). The formulation that showed the highest content of carotenoids (R) and (A) was Merkén UCT005, in addition this formulation had highest value in the variables L *, a *, b * and C *. Merkén UCT003 obtained the highest value for H*. Therefore, the pepper cv. "Cacho de cabra" from the Araucanía Region is recommended for optimum merkén formulation from the standpoint of color. Since the color is a quality index, it is advisable to use pepper cv. "Cacho de cabra" from the Araucanía Region for merkén optimal formulation from the standpoint color: this variety also proved to have a higher content of carotenoids.

Papa chilena, el vodka y su influencia en la Segunda Guerra Mundial: frente ruso

Existen evidencias científicas de que la papa chilena originaria de Chiloé es la ascendiente de las actuales papas europeas. Ellas constituyeron uno de los alimentos principales que sustentaron al Ejército Rojo durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. No sólo como papas cocinadas, sino que a partir de ellas se fabricaba vodka, el licor típico de Rusia. Entre otros factores, este licor permitió luchar y permanecer en la intemperie a unidades completas, a veces a temperaturas de 40 °C bajo cero. Fue un aliciente para soldados que combatían bajo condiciones precarias y frente a enemigos aguerridos, como los soldados alemanes. Fue tan importante su contribución a la victoria, que el suministro fue reglamentado por Ordenanzas del Ejército. Aun en lugares tan lejanos y de difícil acceso como Stalingrado, no faltó esta bebida alcohólica. La contribución rusa en la victoria fue reconocida por Sir Winston Churchill, quien indicó que gracias al Ejército Rojo se derrotó a las fuerzas alemanas: fueron las 300 divisiones soviéticas las que desbarataron a las cerca de 100 divisiones, de las disciplinadas tropas del III Reich, en el Frente Oriental. Esto generó un cambio notable en la política y en la historia del mundo.

There is scientific evidence that potatoes from Chiloe, Chile were the ancestor of the current European potato. They were one of the main foods that supported the Red Army during World War II. Not only as cooked potatoes, but vodka was also made from them, the typical Russian liquor. Among other factors, this liquor allowed army groups to fight and remain outdoors, sometimes at temperatures of -40° Celsius degrees. It was an incentive for soldiers who fought under precarious conditions facing hardened enemies, as were the German soldiers. It was such an important contribution to victory that the supply was regulated by military orders. Even places as far away and inaccessible as Stalingrad did not lack vodka. The Russian contribution to victory was recognized by Sir Winston Churchill, who said that with the Red Army the German forces were defeated; 300 Soviet divisions that destroyed at about 100 German divisions, the disciplined troops of the Third Reich, on the Eastern Front. This led to a noticeable change in politics and world history.

Poscosecha de flores de corte y medio ambiente

Se ha determinado que un tercio de la vida de la flor cortada está influenciada por el ambiente de precosecha, mientras que los dos tercios restantes por el manejo y las condiciones reinantes después del corte. El transporte de flores a largas distancias se ha ido incrementando debido a que países como Kenia, Zimbabwe, Australia, Chile, Tailandia, Sudáfrica, Polonia, India y China se han ido incorporando a la producción florícola y cuentan con extensos programas para la exportación, sin embargo se encuentran distantes de los principales centros de comercialización y consumo como son Estados Unidos de Norteamérica, Europa y Japón. Lo anterior conlleva la necesidad de desarrollar tecnologías que permitan mantener la calidad de las flores cortadas, tales como conservación a bajas temperaturas, el uso de biocidas como el cloro o de preservantes químicos inhibidores del etileno (TSP), principal elemento causante de la maduración y senescencia de flores y frutos, o el empleo de técnicas mecánicas como el corte de los tallos bajo el agua, o la inmersión en ácido cítrico o aguas que contengan productos comerciales como Florissima o Pokon, entre otros. La calidad de los productos florales demandados por los consumidores europeos es extremadamente alta, los estándares de calidad de la Unión Europea están definidos en la norma 316/68 en la que se fijan los requerimientos mínimos para las flores cortadas y su tratamiento en postcosecha. En el presente trabajo se analizan las causas de la senescencia de las flores de corte y los preservantes no contaminantes para prolongar su vida útil en jarrón en forma respetuosa con el medio ambiente.

It has been determined that a third of the life of cut flowers is influenced by pre-harvest environment, while the remaining two thirds for the management and the conditions after cutting. The transport of flowers over long distances has increased because countries like Kenya, Zimbabwe, Australia, Chile, Thailand, South Africa, Poland, India and China, have gone into production and have extensive flower for export programs, however distant from the main centers of trade and consumption as the United States of America, Europe and Japan. This implies the need to develop technologies to maintain the quality of cut flowers, such as low temperature storage, the use of chemical preservatives and biocides as chlorine, ethylene inhibitors (TSA), the main element that causes ripening and senescence of flowers and fruit, or the use of mechanical techniques such as cutting the stems under water, immersion in citric acid or water containing commercial products or Pokon, Florissima, among others. The quality of floral products demanded by European consumers is extremely high quality standards of the European Union are defined in the standard 316/68 laying down minimum requirements for cut flowers. This paper analyzes the causes of the senescence of cut flowers and clean preservatives to prolong their vase life as environmentally.